United States
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Fully updated and featuring a new chapter on enhanced geothermal systems, this Second Edition of a Choice Award winner contains the latest scientific information used to discern applications and regions best suited for geothermal energy. Stressing environmental effects related to acquisition and consumption, the text explores where geothermal energy comes from and how to find it, as well as how it can be accessed, applied, and improved for future use. It provides background, theory, and practical techniques for implementing different types of geothermal energy projects.
INTRODUCTION
THE GLOBAL ENERGY LANDSCAPE
The Historical Role of Fuel
The Impact of Population Growth and Per Capita Energy Use
Fuel Emissions and Environmental Considerations
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AS A RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE
No Fuel, Few Emissions, Reduced Volatility
Geothermal Energy is a Flexible Energy Resource
ELECTRICAL DEMAND AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Generating Electrical Power for the Grid
Generating Electrical Power for Local Use
SYNOPSIS
FIGURE CAPTIONS
FURTHER INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
SOURCES OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT: THE EARTH AS A HEAT ENGINE
ORIGIN OF EARTH'S HEAT
Heat from Formation of the Core
Heat From Radioactive Decay of Long-Lived Isotopes
TRANSFER OF HEAT IN THE EARTH
Radiation
Conduction
Convection
PLATE TECTONICS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS BY THEIR GEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
Extensional environments
Compressional environments
Translational environments
Hot spots
Transitional Settings
AVAILABILITY AND UTILIZATION OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
SYNOPSIS
CASE STUDIES
Extensional Environments -Spreading Centers
Compressional Environments - Subduction Zones
Hot Spots
FIGURE CAPTIONS
FURTHER INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
THERMODYNAMICS AND GEOTHERMAL
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - THE EQUIVALENCE OF HEAT AND WORK, AND THE
Conservation of Energy
Internal energy
PV work
Enthalpy
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - THE INEVITABLE INCREASE OF ENTROPY
Efficiency
Carnot cycle
Heat capacity
Entropy
GIBBS FUNCTION AND GIBBS ENERGY
The Standard State
THERMODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY
CASE STUDY: THE THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF WATER AND ROCK-WATER INTERACTION
SYNOPSIS
FIGURE CAPTIONS
FURTHER INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
SUBSURFACE FLUID FLOW - THE HYDROLOGY OF GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
A GENERAL MODEL FOR SUBSURFACE FLUID FLOW
MATRIX POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
Definition of Matrix Permeability
The Kozeny-Carman Equation
Hydraulic Conductivity
FRACTURE POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
Fracture Permeability
Fracture Transmissivity
THE EFFECT OF DEPTH ON POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
HYDROLOGIC PROPERTIES OF REAL GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
CASE STUDY: LONG VALLEY CALDERA
SYNOPSIS
FIGURE CAPTIONS
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
CHEMISTRY OF GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS
WHY THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS MATTERS
WATER AS A CHEMICAL AGENT
COMPONENTS AND CHEMICAL SYSTEMS
Chemical Potentials, μ, and Gibbs Energy
Activity, a
SATURATION AND THE LAW OF MASS ACTION
Equilibrium Constants
Activity Coefficients, γ
Affinity
Ion Exchange
THE KINETICS OF GEOTHERMAL REACTIONS
GASES IN GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
Gas Partitioning Between Liquid and Vapor
FLUID FLOW AND MIXING IN NATURAL SYSTEMS
SIMULATING REACTIVE TRANSPORT
CASE STUDY: THE SILICA SYSTEM
SYNOPSIS
FIGURE CAPTIONS
FURTHER INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
EXPLORING FOR GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS: GEOLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY
CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS FROM A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Isolated continental volcanic centers (Brophy Type A)
Andesite volcanoes (Brophy Type B)
Calderas (Brophy Type C)
Fault-bounded sedimentary basins (Brophy Type D)
Fault-bounded extensional (horst & graben) complexes (Brophy Type E)
Oceanic basaltic provinces (Brophy Type F)
THE ORIGIN OF GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS: SIGNIFICANCE FOR RESOURCE EXPLORATION AND ASSESSMENT
SURFACE MANIFESTATIONS
Springs
Surface Deposits Lacking Active Springs
FLUID GEOCHEMISTRY AS AN EXPLORATION TOOL
Fluid Composition and Geothermometry
Isotopes
FLUID INCLUSIONS
ALTERATION AND EXPLORATION
SYNOPSIS
FIGURE CAPTIONS
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
EXPLORING FOR GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS: GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
GEOPHYSICS AS AN EXPLORATION TOOL
AEROMAGNETIC SURVEYS
RESISTIVITY AND MAGNETOTELLURIC SURVEYS
GRAVITY SURVEYS
SEISMICITY AND REFLECTION SEISMOLOGY
REMOTE SENSING AS AN EXPLORATION TOOL - A PROMISING NEW TECHNIQUE
Multi-Spectral Studies
CASE STUDY: FALLON, NEVADA
SYNOPSIS
FIGURE CAPTIONS
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
ASSESSING A GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE
RESOURCE BASE AND RESERVES
Uncertainty
DETERMINING THE RESERVOIR VOLUME
ESTABLISHING THE RESERVOIR HEAT CONTENT
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HEAT CAPACITY
EFFICIENCY OF HEAT EXTRACTION
A CASE STUDY - ESTABLISHING THE UNITED STATES GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE
SYNOPSIS
FIGURE CAPTIONS
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION RESOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
. DRILLING
BACKGROUND
DRILLING FOR GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP (GHP) AND DIRECT-USE APPLICATIONS
Drilling Equipment and Technology
Drilling Fluid and Circulation
Properties of Drilling Fluids
Well Completion
Environmental Issues
Drilling For Geothermal Fluids For Power Generation
Drilling Rigs
Confining Pressure And Rock Strength
Temperature And Drilling Fluid Stability
Casing And Grouting
Packers
Lost Circulation
Blowout Prevention Equipment (BOPE)
Directional Drilling
Coring
SYNOPSIS
CASE STUDY: KAKKONDA, JAPAN
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
GENERATING POWER USING GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
THE HISTORY OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PRODUCTION
FLEXIBILITY AND CONSISTENCY
GENERAL FEATURES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATION FACILITIES
DRY STEAM RESOURCES
HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS
Flashing
Steam Quality
Dual-Flash Systems
The End State - Condensers and Cooling Towers
BINARY GENERATION FACILTIES: THE ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE
SYNOPSIS
CASE STUDY: THE GEYSERS
Geology
Power Generation History
Emissions
Sustainability and Re-injection
FIGURE CAPTIONS
FURTHER INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
. LOW-TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES: GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS
BASIC HEAT PUMP PRINCIPLES
THE THERMODYNAMICS OF HEAT PUMPS
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP) AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATIO (EER)
THE NEAR-SURFACE THERMAL RESERVOIR
Solar Insolation
Soil Characteristics
Thermal Conductivity and Heat Capacity of Soils
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS
Heating and Cooling Loads
Calculating Loop Length
LOCAL VARIABILITY – WHY MEASUREMENTS MATTER
SYNOPSIS
CASE STUDY: WEAVERVILLE AND A US COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF GHP INSTALLATION
SUGGESTED FURTHER READING
REFERENCES
TABLES
DIRECT USE OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
ASSESSING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE DIRECT USE RESERVOIR
THE NATURE OF THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER
Heat Transfer by Conduction
Heat Transfer by Convection
Heat Transfer by Radiation
Heat Transfer by Evaporation
ESTABLISHING THE FEASIBILITY OF A DIRECT USE APPLICATION
DISTRICT HEATING
Evaluation and Operation
Managing Return Temperature
Piping and Heat Loss
Materials Compatibility and Fluid Chemistry
AQUACULTURE
DRYING
SYNOPSIS
CANBY CASCADED SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY
FIGURE CAPTIONS
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
THE CONCEPT OF ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
THE MAGNITUDE OF ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
Identifying Candidate Zones for Stimulation
Improving Permeability – The Required Rock Volume
The Physical Principles of the Stimulation Process
Managing the Stimulation Process
Monitoring the Stimulation Process
THE HISTORY OF ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
Drilling and Downhole Equipment
Drilling fluids
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY
SYNOPSIS
CASE STUDY: NEWBERRY ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM DEMONSTRATION PROJECT
FIGURE CAPTIONS
FURTHER INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
USE OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES: ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
ECONOMICS OF GEOTHERMAL POWER
Upfront Capital Costs Associated with Geothermal Power
Capacity Factors
Levelized Costs
THE ECONOMICS OF R&D INVESTMENT IN GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Technology Evolution and S-Curves
Projected Energy Costs
DEVELOPING A GEOTHERMAL PROJECT
Rights to Develop a Resource and Permitting
Initial Resource Assessments
Refining the Resource Assessment Through Exploration Drilling
Production Wells and Feasibility Study
ALTERNATIVE ECONOMIC MODELS
Life cycle analyses
Energy Returned on Energy Invested
SYNOPSIS
FIGURE CAPTIONS
FURTHER INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
TABLES
USE OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
EMISSIONS
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen Sulfide
Mercury
SOLUTE LOAD AND RESOURCE RECOVERY
SEISMICITY
The Mechanics of Seismic Events
Shear Stress, Normal Stress and Frictional Strength
Pore Water
Seismic Activity Associated with Geothermal Projects
Seismicity Associated with Injection of Cool Water
Rupture area and magnitude
Seismicity Associated with Fluid Extraction
Seismicity Associated with High-Pressure Injection of Fluid to Enhance Reservoir Permeability
GROUND SUBSIDENCE
WATER USE
LAND USE
SYNOPSIS
FIGURE CAPTIONS
REFERENCES
TABLES
THE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY FUTURE: POSSIBILITIES AND ISSUES
HISTORY OF GEOTHERMAL EMERGENCE IN THE MARKET PLACE
GEOPRESSURED RESOURCES
Magnitude of the Resource
Why Geopressured Reservoirs Form
Challenges to Development
Fluid Chemistry
Re-injection
SUPERCRITICAL GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS
THERMOELECTRIC GENERATION
FLEXIBLE GENERATION
HYBRID GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
SYNOPSIS
FIGURE CAPTIONS
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES
REFERENCES
William Glassley is the executive director of the California Geothermal Energy Collaborative. He has more than 30 years’ experience in R&D in the earth sciences. The focus of his research has been in areas related to geothermal processes. He has held faculty appointments at several academic institutions. He was on the staff of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory for more than 20 years. He currently is with the University of California. The author of more than 50 research articles in international journals, he has also participated on numerous national and international panels and working groups, and holds a doctorate in geochemistry.
"This is a very well written book and is very useful for both scientists as well as technologists as the ready reference for geothermal energy. It deals with every possible latest aspect with basic concepts along with the mathematical description. It will certainly be very handy for the planner as well as students who like to tap the potential of alternate energy resource."
– Professor Sandeep Singh, IIT Roorkee, India
"Great introductory treatment of all aspects of geothermal energy – from sources and occurrences, to exploration and utilization, to economic and environmental aspects, and to the future possibilities."
– Andrew Chiasson, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, USA
"This book provides a thorough, solid grounding in the basic physical science needed to understand geothermal energy. This is not always the case in writings on renewable energy! The reader of Glassley's book will come away with a clear understanding of basic thermodynamics, geophysics, and geochemistry at a fundamental level. That leads to a deeper appreciation for the technological needs and challenges of geothermal energy systems. The book is quantitative throughout – an essential feature if one is to grasp the true potential of any renewable energy resource."
– Richard Wolfson, Professor of Physics & Environmental Studies, Middlebury College, Vermont, USA
" [...] provides an excellent general discussion of the major elements in this new aspect of geothermal energy development such as the "magnitude" and "characteristics" of these systems for the non-geoscientist as well as undergraduate and graduate science students."
– Joe Iovenitti, Consulting Geoscientist, USA
"This textbook will help educate the next generation of geothermal practitioners who will implement the solutions needed to grow geothermal energy so that it becomes a key part of the future renewable energy mix."
– Trenton Cladouhos, AltaRock Energy, Inc., Seattle, Washington, USA
